Dark Triad Community: The link goes to an external site. The “short dark triad test” is an official test developed in 2011 by Delroy Paulhus and Daniel N. Jones to provide a more uniform assessment of dark triad characteristics. Of particular interest in the context of the red pill thought is research on the dark triad mating strategy. How can the answer be improved?
In psychology, the dark triad refers to the personality traits of narcissism, machiavellianism, and psychopathy.[1][2][3][4] They are called 'dark' because of their malevolent qualities.[5][1][6][7]
Research on the dark triad is used in applied psychology, especially within the fields of law enforcement, clinical psychology, and business management. People scoring high on these traits are more likely to commit crimes, cause social distress and create severe problems for an organization, especially if they are in leadership positions (for more information, see psychopathy, narcissism, and Machiavellianism in the workplace). They also tend to be less compassionate, agreeable, empathetic, satisfied with their lives, and less likely to believe they and others are good.[8]
All three dark triad traits are conceptually distinct although empirical evidence shows them to be overlapping. They are associated with a callous-manipulative interpersonal style.[9]
Narcissism is characterized by grandiosity, pride, egotism, and a lack of empathy.[10]
Machiavellianism is characterized by manipulation and exploitation of others, an absence of morality, and a higher level of self interest.[11]
Psychopathy is characterized by continuous antisocial behavior, impulsivity, selfishness, callous and unemotional traits (CU),[12] and remorselessness.[13]
A factor analysis carried out at the Glasgow Caledonian University found that among the big five personality traits, low agreeableness is the strongest correlate of the dark triad, while neuroticism and a lack of conscientiousness were associated with some of the dark triad members.[11]
2Components
3Origins
5Perspectives
6Related concepts
History[edit]
In 1998, McHoskey, Worzel, and Szyarto[14] provoked a controversy by claiming that narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy are more or less interchangeable in normal samples. Delroy L. Paulhus and McHoskey debated these perspectives at a subsequent American Psychological Association (APA) conference, inspiring a body of research that continues to grow in the published literature. Paulhus and Williams found enough behavioral, personality, and cognitive differences between the traits to suggest that they were distinct constructs; however, they concluded that further research was needed to elucidate how and why they overlap.[1]
Components[edit]
There is a good deal of conceptual and empirical overlap between the dark triad traits. For example, researchers have noted that all three traits share characteristics such as a lack of empathy,[15] interpersonal hostility,[16] and interpersonal offensiveness.[17] Likely due in part to this overlap, a number of measures have recently been developed that attempt to measure all three dark triad traits simultaneously, such as the Dirty Dozen[18] and the short dark triad (SD3).[19]
At their root, however, most of these measures are questionnaire-style and require either self-response or observer-response (e.g., ratings from supervisors or coworkers). Both methods can prove problematic when attempting to measure any socially aversive trait as self-responders may be motivated to deceive.[20] A more specific confound might also exist for dark triad traits and Machiavellianism in particular: individuals who are skilled at deceiving and manipulating others should be perceived as low in deceptiveness and manipulation by others, and are therefore likely to receive inaccurate ratings.[20]
Despite these criticisms and the acknowledged commonalities among the dark triad traits, there is evidence that the constructs are related yet distinct.
Machiavellianism[edit]
Named after the political philosophy espoused by Niccolò Machiavelli, people who score high on this trait are cynical (in an amoral self-interest sense, not in a doubtful or skeptical sense), unprincipled, cold, believe in interpersonal manipulation as the key for life success, and behave accordingly.[21] Scores on measures of Machiavellianism correlate negatively with agreeableness (r = −.47) and conscientiousness (r = −.34).[1] Machiavellianism is also significantly correlated with psychopathy.[22]
Narcissism[edit]
Individuals who score high on narcissism display grandiosity, entitlement, dominance, and superiority.[23] Narcissism has been found to correlate positively with extraversion (r = .42) and openness (r = .38) and negatively with agreeableness (r = −.36).[1] Narcissism has also been found to have a significant correlation with psychopathy.[22]
Psychopathy[edit]
Considered the most malevolent of the dark triad,[24] individuals who score high on psychopathy show low levels of empathy combined with high levels of impulsivity and thrill-seeking.[25] The similarity between psychopathy and antisocial personality disorder have been noted by some researchers.[21] The DSM-5 classifies psychopathy as being the high end of the Antisocial Personality Disorder spectrum. Approximately 30% of those with ASPD are also classified as psychopaths. Psychopathy has been found to correlate with all of the Big Five personality factors: extraversion (r = .34), agreeableness (r = −.25), conscientiousness (r = −.24), neuroticism (r = −.34) and openness (r = .24).[22]
Origins[edit]
The long-debated 'nature versus nurture' issue has been applied to the dark triad. Research has begun to investigate the origins of the dark triad traits. In a similar manner to research on the Big Five personality traits, empirical studies have been conducted in an effort to understand the relative contributions of biology (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) in the development of dark triad traits.
One of the ways in which researchers attempt to dissect the relative influence of genetic and environmental factors on personality (and individual differences more generally) is a broad investigative technique loosely grouped under the heading of 'twin studies'. For example, in one approach to twin studies,[26][27][22] researchers compare the personality scores of monozygotic (MZ) or identical twins reared together to dizygotic (DZ) or fraternal twins reared together. Because both types of twins in this design are reared together, all twin pairs are regarded as having shared a 100% common environment. In contrast, the monozygotic twins share 100% of their genes whereas the dizygotic twins only share about 50% of their genes. Therefore, for any given personality trait, it is possible to parcel out genetic influences by first obtaining the MZ correlation (reflecting 100% common environment and 100% shared genes) and subtracting the DZ correlation (reflecting 100% common environment and 50% shared genes). This difference represents 50% of the genetic influence; doubled, this number is said to account for 100% of the genetic influence, and is one way to derive an index of heritability (sometimes called the heritability coefficient and represented as h2). Similarly, MZ − h2 may be regarded as an estimate of the influence of the common environment. Finally, because individual differences and the environment are supposed to account for the totality of behavior, it is said that subtracting the sum of h2 and the common environment influence from 1 is equal to the influence of unique or non-shared environments.[citation needed]
Biological[edit]
All three traits of the dark triad have beenfound to have substantial genetic components.[26] It has also been found that the observed relationships among the dark triad, and among the dark triad and the Big Five, are strongly driven by individual differences in genes.[21] However, while psychopathy (h2 = 0.64) and narcissism (h2 = 0.59) both have a relatively large heritable component, Machiavellianism (h2 = 0.31) while also moderately influenced by genetics, has been found to be less heritable than the other two traits.[21][22]
Environmental[edit]
Compared to biological factors, the influence of environmental factors seem to be more subtle and account for less—yet still significant—variation in individual differences as related to the development of dark triad traits.[21] The influence of non-shared or unique environmental factors (definition and mathematical derivation included above at the end of the 'Origins' subsection) accounts for a significant amount of the variance in all 3 dark triad traits (narcissism = 0.41, Machiavellianism = 0.30, psychopathy = 0.32), whereas only Machiavellianism (r = 0.39) has been found to be significantly related to a shared environmental factor.[27] Although it requires substantiation, some researchers have interpreted this latter finding (along with the comparatively lesser heritability noted in the section above) to mean that Machiavellianism is the most likely dark triad trait to be influenced by experience.[15] At the very least, this notion about the modifiability of Machiavellianism does make some sense insofar as that the less variance there is attributable to genetic factors, the more variance there must be attributable to other factors, and 'other' factors have traditionally been synopsized as environmental in nature.
Evolutionary[edit]
Evolutionarytheory may also explain the development of dark triad traits. It has been argued that evolutionary behavior predicts not only the development of dark triad personalities, but also the flourishing of such personalities.[28] Indeed, it has been found that individuals demonstrating dark triad personality can be highly successful in society.[21] However, this success is typically short-lived.[21] The main evolutionary argument behind the dark triad traits emphasizes mating strategies.[29][30] This argument focuses on the notion of life history strategy.[31] Life history strategy proposes that individuals differ in reproductive strategies; an emphasis on mating is termed a 'fast life' strategy, while an emphasis on parenting is termed a 'slow reproductive' strategy.[31] There is some evidence[32][33] that the dark triad traits are related to fast life history strategies; however, there have been some mixed results, and not all three dark triad traits have been related to this strategy. A more detailed approach[34] has attempted to account for some of these mixed results by analyzing the traits at a finer level of detail. These researchers found that while some components of the dark triad are related to a fast life strategy, other components are related to slow reproductive strategies.[34]
Sub-clinical dimensions vs. disorders[edit]
In general, clinicians treat two of the traits (narcissism and psychopathy) as pathological, something that needs to be treated, and inherently undesirable, e.g. socially condemned or personally counter-productive. However, others argue that adaptive qualities may accompany the maladaptive ones. The evolutionary perspective (above) considers the dark triad to represent different mating strategies. Their frequency in the gene pool requires at least some local adaptation.
The everyday versions of these traits appear in student and community samples, where even high levels can be observed among individuals who manage to get along in daily life. Even in these samples, research indicates correlations with aggression,[35]racism,[36] and bullying[37] among other forms of social aversiveness.
Narcissism was discussed in the writings of Sigmund Freud, and psychopathy as a clinical diagnosis was addressed in the early writings of Hervey Cleckley in 1941 with the publication of The Mask of Sanity.[38] Given the dimensional model of narcissism and psychopathy, complemented by self-report assessments that are appropriate for the general population, these traits can now be studied at the subclinical level.[39] In the general population, the prevalence rates for sub-clinical and clinical psychopathy are estimated at around 1% and 0.2%, respectively.[40][41][42] Unfortunately, there do not seem to be any reliable estimates of either clinical or sub-clinical narcissism in the general population.[43]
With respect to empirical research, psychopathy was not formally studied until the 1970s with the pioneering efforts of Robert Hare, his Psychopathy Checklist (PCL), and its revision (PCL-R).[44] Hare notes in his book, Without Conscience[45] that asking psychopaths to self-report on psychologically important matters does not necessarily provide accurate or unbiased data. However, recent efforts have been made to study psychopathy in the dimensional realm using self-reported instruments, as with the Levenson Primary and Secondary Psychopathy Scales,[46] The Psychopathic Personality Inventory,[47] and the Self-Report Psychopathy Scale.[48]
Similarly, assessment of narcissism required clinical interviews, until the popular 'Narcissistic Personality Inventory' was created by Raskin and Hall in 1979.[49] Since the NPI, several other measures have emerged which attempt to provide self-report alternatives for personality disorder assessment.[50] In addition, new instruments have been developed to study 'pathological' narcissism[51] as opposed to 'grandiose' narcissism, which is what many argue the NPI measures.[52][53]
Machiavellianism has never been referenced in any version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) for psychological disorders. It has been treated as strictly a personality construct. The original published version of the Mach-IV[54] is still the most widely used in empirical research.[55]
Group differences[edit]
The most pronounced group difference is in gender: numerous studies have shown that men tend to score higher than women on narcissism,[56] Machiavellianism,[57][58][59] and psychopathy,[46][47][60][61] although the magnitude of the difference varies across traits and the measurement instruments used. One interesting finding related to narcissism—albeit one based on non-representative samples—is that while men continue to score higher than women, it seems that the gender gap has shrunk considerably when comparing cohort data from 1992 and 2006. More specifically, the aforementioned findings indicate that there has been a general increase in levels of narcissism over time among college students of both sexes, but comparatively, the average level of narcissism in women has increased more than the average level of narcissism in men.[56]
There is far less information available on race differences in dark triad traits, and the data that is available is not representative of the population at-large. For instance, a 2008 research study using undergraduate participants found that Caucasians reported higher levels of narcissism relative to Asians.[62][63] Similarly, another 2008 study using undergraduate participants found that Caucasians tended to score slightly higher than non-Caucasians on Machiavellianism.[58] When attempting to discern whether there are ethnic differences in psychopathy, researchers have addressed the issue using different measurement instruments (e.g., the Self-Report Psychopathy Scale and The Psychopathic Personality Inventory), but no race differences have been found regardless of the measure used.[64][65] Additionally, when comparing Caucasians and African Americans from correctional, substance abuse, and psychiatric samples—groups with typically high prevalence rates of psychopathy—researchers again failed to find any meaningful group differences in psychopathy.[66] However, in controversial research conducted by Richard Lynn, a substantial racial difference in psychopathy was found. Lynn proposes 'that there are racial and ethnic differences in psychopathic personality conceptualised as a continuously distributed trait, such that high values of the trait are present in blacks and Native Americans, intermediate values in Hispanics, lower values in whites and the lowest values in East Asians.'[67]
The focal variable when analyzing generational or cohort differences in dark triad traits has tended to be narcissism, arising from the hypothesis that so-called 'Generation Me' or 'Generation Entitlement' would exhibit higher levels of narcissism than previous generations. Indeed, based on analyses of responses to the Narcissistic Personality Inventory collected from over 16,000 U.S. undergraduate students between 1979 and 2006, it was concluded that average levels of narcissism had increased over time.[56] Similar results were obtained in a follow-up study that analyzed the changes within each college campus.[68] Trzesniewski & Donnellan (2010)[69] present conflicting evidence and argue that there have not been large changes in disposition or behavioral strategies across generations, although they do note that the current generation is less trusting and more cynical, which are both changes that might be indicative of an increase in Machiavellianism.
Perspectives[edit]
In the workplace[edit]
Oliver James identifies each of the three dark triadic personality traits as typically being prevalent in the workplace (see also Machiavellianism in the workplace, narcissism in the workplace and psychopathy in the workplace).[70] Furnham (2010)[21] has identified that the dark triad is related to the acquisition of leadership positions and interpersonal influence. In a meta-analysis of dark triad and workplace outcomes, Jonason and colleagues (2012) found that each of the dark triad traits were related to manipulation in the workplace, but each via unique mechanisms. Specifically, Machiavellianism was related with the use of excessive charm in manipulation, narcissism was related with the use of physical appearance, and psychopathy was related with physical threats.[71] Jonason and colleagues also found that the dark triad traits fully mediated the relationship between gender and workplace manipulation. The dark triad traits have also been found to be fairly well-represented in upper-level management and CEOs.[72]
Internet trolls[edit]
Recent studies have found that people who are identified as trolls tend to have dark personality traits and show signs of sadism, antisocial behavior, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism.[73][74][75] The 2013 case study suggested that there are a number of similarities between anti-social and flame trolling activities and the 2014 survey indicated that trolling is an Internet manifestation of everyday sadism. Both studies suggest that this trolling may be linked to bullying in both adolescents and adults.
As a mating strategy[edit]
Studies have suggested that on average, those who exhibit the dark triad of personality traits have an accelerated mating strategy, reporting more sex partners, more favorable attitudes towards casual sex,[76] lowered standards in their short-term mates,[77] a tendency to steal or poach mates from others,[78] more risk-taking in the form of substance abuse,[33] a tendency to prefer immediate but smaller amounts of money over delayed but larger amounts of money,[79] limited self-control and greater incidence of ADHD symptoms[32] and a pragmatic and game-playing romance style.[80] These traits have been identified as part of a fast life strategy that appears to be enacted by an exploitative, opportunistic, and protean approach to life in general[81] and at work.[71]
The evidence is mixed regarding the exact link between the dark triad and reproductive success. For example, there is a lack of empirical evidence for reproductive success in the case of psychopathy.[13] Additionally, these traits are not universally short-term-oriented[32] nor are they all impulsive.[15] Furthermore, much of the research reported pertaining to the dark triad cited in the above paragraph is based on statistical procedures that assume the dark triad are a single construct, in spite of genetic[22] and meta-analytic evidence to the contrary.[20]
Appearance[edit]
Several academic studies have found evidence that people with dark triad personalities are judged as slightly better-looking than average on first sight.[82] Two studies have determined that this is because people with dark triad traits put more effort into their appearance, and the difference in attractiveness disappears when 'dressed down' with bland clothing and without make up.[83][84] Two more studies found that only narcissistic subjects were judged to be better-looking, but the other dark triad traits of machiavellianism and psychopathy had no correlation with looks.[85][86]Facial features associated with dark triad traits tend to be rated as less attractive.[87][88]
Related concepts[edit]
Big Five[edit]
The five factor model of personality has significant relationships with the dark triad combined and with each of the dark triad's traits. The dark triad overall is negatively related to both agreeableness and conscientiousness.[21] More specifically, Machiavellianism captures a suspicious versus trusting view of human nature which is also captured by the Trust sub-scale on the agreeableness trait.[89]Extroversion captures similar aspects of assertiveness, dominance, and self-importance as narcissism.[89] Narcissism also is positively related to the achievement striving and competence aspects of Conscientiousness. Psychopathy has the strongest correlations with low dutifulness and deliberation aspects of Conscientiousness.[21]
Honesty-humility[edit]
The honesty-humility factor from the HEXACO model of personality is used to measure sincerity, fairness, greed avoidance, and modesty. Honesty-Humility has been found to be strongly, negatively correlated to the dark triad traits.[90] Likewise, all three dark triad traits are strongly negatively correlated with Honesty-Humility.[21] The conceptual overlap of the three traits which represents a tendency to manipulate and exploit others for personal gain defines the negative pole of the honesty-humility factor.[91] Typically, any positive effects from the DT and low H-H occur at the individual level, that is, any benefits are conferred onto the beholder of the traits (e.g., successful mating, obtainment of leadership positions) and not onto others or society at large. A study found that individuals who score low in Honesty-Humility have higher levels of self-reported creativity.[92]
Dark tetrad[edit]
Several researchers have suggested expanding the dark triad to contain a fourth dark trait. Everyday sadism, defined as the enjoyment of cruelty, is the most common addition.[93] While sadism is highly correlated with the dark triad, researchers have shown that sadism predicts anti-social behavior beyond the dark triad.[37][94]Borderline personality disorder and status-driven risk-taking have also been proposed as additions.[21]
Vulnerable dark triad[edit]
The vulnerable dark triad (VDT) comprises three related and similar constructs: vulnerable narcissism, factor 2 psychopathy, and borderline personality disorder. A study found that these three constructs are significantly related to one another and manifest similar nomological networks. Although the VDT members are related to negative emotionality and antagonistic interpersonal styles, they are also related to introversion and disinhibition. The study does note however that its findings are based largely on the self-reports of parents of white undergrad students rather than information gleaned from clinical evaluation.[95]
Malignant narcissism[edit]
Within the clinical/pathological realm, narcissism can manifest itself in a particularly severe form known as malignant narcissism. Malignant narcissism presents not only with signs and symptoms of grandiose narcissism, but also includes features of paranoia, sadism, aggression, and psychopathy (particularly antisocial behaviors).[96]
Light triad[edit]
Influenced by the dark triad, Scott Barry Kaufman proposed a 'light triad' of personality virtues: humanism, Kantianism, and faith in humanity.[97][98][99] This test was not an inversion of the dark triad test. In fact, Kaufman intended to avoid reversing the coding of the dark triad and instead focused on characteristics that were conceptually opposite from the dark triad test.
Individuals who score high on light triad traits also report higher levels of: religiosity, spirituality, life satisfaction, acceptance of others, belief that they and others are good, compassion, empathy, openness to experience and conscientiousness.[8]
See also[edit]
References[edit]
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^Robert M. Regoli; John D. Hewitt; Matt DeLisi (20 April 2011). Delinquency in Society: The Essentials. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 99. ISBN978-0-7637-7790-6.
^W. Keith Campbell; Joshua D. Miller (7 July 2011). The Handbook of Narcissism and Narcissistic Personality Disorder: Theoretical Approaches, Empirical Findings, and Treatments. John Wiley & Sons. p. 154. ISBN978-1-118-02924-4.
^Mark R. Leary; Rick H. Hoyle (5 June 2009). Handbook of individual differences in social behavior. Guilford Press. p. 100. ISBN978-1-59385-647-2.
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^ abTsukayama, Eli; Hyde, Elizabeth; Yaden, David Bryce; Kaufman, Scott Barry (2019). 'The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting Two Very Different Profiles of Human Nature'. Frontiers in Psychology. 10. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467. ISSN1664-1078. PMC6423069. PMID30914993.
^Jones, D. N., Paulhus, D. L. (2010). 'Differentiating the dark triad within the interpersonal circumplex'. In Horowitz, L. M.; Strack, S. N. (eds.). Handbook of interpersonal theory and research. New York: Guilford. pp. 249–67.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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^ abJakobwitz, Sharon; Egan, Vincent (January 2006). 'The dark triad and normal personality traits'. Personality and Individual Differences. 40 (2): 331–339. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.07.006.
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^ abSkeem, Jennifer L.; Polaschek, Devon L. L.; Patrick, Christopher J.; Lilienfeld, Scott O. (15 December 2011). 'Psychopathic Personality'. Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 12 (3): 95–162. doi:10.1177/1529100611426706. PMID26167886.
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^Hare, R.D., (1991). The Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.
^Hare, R. D. (1999). Without conscience: The disturbing world of the psychopaths among us. New York: Guilford Press.
^ abLevenson M. R.; Kiehl K. A.; Fitzpatrick C. M. (1995). 'Assessing psychopathic attributes in a noninstitutionalized population'. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 68 (1): 151–58. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.1.151. PMID7861311.
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^Paulhus, D. L., Neumann, C. S., & Hare, R. D. (2015). Manual for the Self-Report Psychopathy scales (4th ed.). Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.
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^Miller, J. D.; Campbell, W. K. (2008). 'Comparing clinical and Social-Personality Conceptutalizations of narcissism'. Journal of Personality. 76 (3): 449–476. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00492.x. PMID18399956.
^Wink P (1991). 'Two faces of narcissism'. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 61 (4): 590–97. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.61.4.590. PMID1960651.
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^Jones, D. N., & Paulhus, D. L. (2009). Machiavellianism. In M. R. Leary & R. H. Hoyle (Eds.), Handbook of Individual Differences in Social Behavior (pp. 93–108). New York: Guilford.
^ abcTwenge, Jean M.; Konrath, Sara; Foster, Joshua D.; Keith Campbell, W.; Bushman, Brad J. (August 2008). 'Egos Inflating Over Time: A Cross-Temporal Meta-Analysis of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory'. Journal of Personality. 76 (4): 875–902. CiteSeerX10.1.1.586.7541. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00507.x. PMID18507710.
^Chonko, Lawrence B. (31 August 2016). 'Machiavellianism: Sex Differences in the Profession of Purchasing Management'. Psychological Reports. 51 (2): 645–646. doi:10.2466/pr0.1982.51.2.645.
^ abDahling, Jason J.; Whitaker, Brian G.; Levy, Paul E. (5 February 2008). 'The Development and Validation of a New Machiavellianism Scale'. Journal of Management. 35 (2): 219–257. doi:10.1177/0149206308318618.
^Wertheim, Edward G.; Widom, Cathy S.; Wortzel, Lawrence H. (1978). 'Multivariate analysis of male and female professional career choice correlates'. Journal of Applied Psychology. 63 (2): 234–242. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.63.2.234.
^Cale, Ellison M.; Lilienfeld, Scott O. (November 2002). 'Sex differences in psychopathy and antisocial personality disorder'. Clinical Psychology Review. 22 (8): 1179–1207. doi:10.1016/s0272-7358(01)00125-8.
^Zágon, Ilona K.; Jackson, Henry J. (July 1994). 'Construct validity of a psychopathy measure'. Personality and Individual Differences. 17 (1): 125–135. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(94)90269-0.
^Trzesniewski, Kali H.; Donnellan, M. Brent; Robins, Richard W. (February 2008). 'Do Today's Young People Really Think They Are So Extraordinary?'. Psychological Science. 19 (2): 181–188. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02065.x. PMID18271867.
^Twenge, Jean M.; Foster, Joshua D. (December 2008). 'Mapping the scale of the narcissism epidemic: Increases in narcissism 2002–2007 within ethnic groups'. Journal of Research in Personality. 42 (6): 1619–1622. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2008.06.014.
^Epstein, Monica K.; Poythress, Norman G.; Brandon, Karen O. (26 July 2016). 'The Self-Report Psychopathy Scale and Passive Avoidance Learning'. Assessment. 13 (2): 197–207. doi:10.1177/1073191105284992. PMID16672734.
^Lander, Gwendoline C.; Lutz-Zois, Catherine J.; Rye, Mark S.; Goodnight, Jackson A. (January 2012). 'The differential association between alexithymia and primary versus secondary psychopathy'. Personality and Individual Differences. 52 (1): 45–50. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.08.027.
^Skeem, Jennifer L.; Edens, John F.; Camp, Jacqueline; Colwell, Lori H. (2004). 'Are there ethnic differences in levels of psychopathy? A meta-analysis'. Law and Human Behavior. 28 (5): 505–527. doi:10.1023/b:lahu.0000046431.93095.d8.
^Lynn, Richard (January 2002). 'Racial and ethnic differences in psychopathic personality'. Personality and Individual Differences. 32 (2): 273–316. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00029-0.
^Twenge, Jean M.; Campbell, W. Keith (5 May 2017). 'Birth Cohort Differences in the Monitoring the Future Dataset and Elsewhere: Further Evidence for Generation Me—Commentary on Trzesniewski & Donnellan (2010)'. Perspectives on Psychological Science. 5 (1): 81–88. doi:10.1177/1745691609357015. PMID26162065.
^Trzesniewski, Kali H.; Donnellan, M. Brent (5 May 2017). 'Rethinking 'Generation Me': A Study of Cohort Effects from 1976-2006'. Perspectives on Psychological Science. 5 (1): 58–75. doi:10.1177/1745691609356789. PMID26162063.
^James, Oliver (2013). Office Politics: How to Thrive in a World of Lying, Backstabbing and Dirty Tricks. ISBN978-1-4090-0557-5.[page needed]
^ abJonason, Peter K.; Slomski, Sarah; Partyka, Jamie (February 2012). 'The Dark Triad at work: How toxic employees get their way'. Personality and Individual Differences. 52 (3): 449–453. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.11.008.
^Amernic, Joel H.; Craig, Russell J. (23 February 2010). 'Accounting as a Facilitator of Extreme Narcissism'. Journal of Business Ethics. 96 (1): 79–93. doi:10.1007/s10551-010-0450-0. JSTOR40836190.
^Buckels, Erin E.; Trapnell, Paul D.; Paulhus, Delroy L. (September 2014). 'Trolls just want to have fun'. Personality and Individual Differences. 67: 97–102. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.01.016.
^'Internet Trolls Are Narcissists, Psychopaths, and Sadists'.
^Anderson, Nate (20 February 2014). 'Science confirms: Online trolls are horrible people (also, sadists!)'. Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 4 November 2016. Retrieved 2 November 2016.Cite uses deprecated parameter |deadurl= (help)
^Jonason, Peter K.; Li, Norman P.; Webster, Gregory D.; Schmitt, David P. (February 2009). 'The dark triad: Facilitating a short-term mating strategy in men'. European Journal of Personality. 23 (1): 5–18. CiteSeerX10.1.1.650.5749. doi:10.1002/per.698.
^Jonason, Peter K.; Valentine, Katherine A.; Li, Norman P.; Harbeson, Carmelita L. (October 2011). 'Mate-selection and the Dark Triad: Facilitating a short-term mating strategy and creating a volatile environment'. Personality and Individual Differences. 51 (6): 759–763. CiteSeerX10.1.1.648.3614. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.06.025.
^Jonason, Peter K.; Li, Norman P.; Buss, David M. (March 2010). 'The costs and benefits of the Dark Triad: Implications for mate poaching and mate retention tactics'. Personality and Individual Differences. 48 (4): 373–378. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.11.003.
^Jonason, P. K.; Li, N. P.; Teicher, E. A. (2010). 'Who is James Bond?:The Dark Triad as an agentic social style'. Individual Differences Research. 8: 111–120.
^Jonason, Peter K.; Kavanagh, Phillip (October 2010). 'The dark side of love: Love styles and the Dark Triad'. Personality and Individual Differences. 49 (6): 606–610. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.05.030.
^Jonason, Peter K.; Webster, Gregory D. (March 2012). 'A protean approach to social influence: Dark Triad personalities and social influence tactics'. Personality and Individual Differences. 52 (4): 521–526. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.11.023.
^Carter, Gregory Louis, Anne C. Campbell, Steven Muncer, 'The Dark Triad personality: Attractiveness to womenArchived 2015-02-26 at the Wayback Machine', Elsevier/ScienceDirect, 12 June 2013
^Grewel, Daisy (2012). 'Psychology Uncovers Sex Appeal of Dark Personalities'. Scientific American. Archived from the original on 2015-08-25.Cite uses deprecated parameter |deadurl= (help)
^Holtzman, Nicholas S.; Strube, Michael J (4 October 2012). 'People With Dark Personalities Tend to Create a Physically Attractive Veneer'. Social Psychological and Personality Science. 4 (4): 461–467. doi:10.1177/1948550612461284.
^Dufner, Michael; Rauthmann, John F.; Czarna, Anna Z.; Denissen, Jaap J. A. (2 April 2013). 'Are Narcissists Sexy? Zeroing in on the Effect of Narcissism on Short-Term Mate Appeal'. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 39 (7): 870–882. doi:10.1177/0146167213483580. PMID23554177.
^Back, Schmuckle; Egloff (Jan 2010). 'Why are narcissists so charming at first sight? Decoding the narcissism-popularity link at zero acquaintance'. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 98 (1): 132–45. doi:10.1037/a0016338. PMID20053038.
^Holtzman, Nicholas S. (December 2011). 'Facing a psychopath: Detecting the dark triad from emotionally-neutral faces, using prototypes from the Personality Faceaurus'. Journal of Research in Personality. 45 (6): 648–654. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2011.09.002.
^'Study: Women dislike men with 'Dark Triad' facial features — even when they're drunk'. 2017-12-31.
^ abHunter, J. E.; Gerbing, D. W.; Boster, F. J. (1982). 'Machiavellian beliefs and personality: Construct invalidity of the Machiavellianism dimension'. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 43 (6): 1293–1305. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.43.6.1293.
^Aghababaei, N.; Mohammadtabar, S.; Saffarinia, M. (2014). 'Dirty Dozen vs. the H factor: Comparison of the Dark Triad and Honesty–Humility in prosociality, religiosity, and happiness'. Personality and Individual Differences. 67: 6–10. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.03.026.
^Lee, K.; Ashton, M. C.; Wiltshire, J.; Bourdage, J. S.; Visser, B. A.; Gallucci, A. (2013). 'Sex, power, and money: Prediction from the Dark Triad and Honesty–Humility'. European Journal of Personality. 27 (2): 169–184. doi:10.1002/per.1860.
^Silvia, P; Kaufman, J (2011). 'Cantankerous creativity: Honesty–Humility, Agreeableness, and the HEXACO structure of creative achievement'. Personality and Individual Differences. 51 (5): 687–689. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.06.011.
^'Everyday Sadists Take Pleasure In Others' Pain'. Association for Psychological Science. Archived from the original on 2018-05-27. Retrieved 2018-05-26.Cite uses deprecated parameter |deadurl= (help)
^Buckels, E.E.; Jones, D. N.; Paulhus, D. L. (2013). 'Behavioral Confirmation of Everyday Sadism'. Psychological Science. 24 (11): 2201–2209. doi:10.1177/0956797613490749. PMID24022650.
^Miller, Joshua D.; Dir, Ally; Gentile, Brittany; Wilson, Lauren; Pryor, Lauren R.; Campbell, W. Keith (October 2010). 'Searching for a Vulnerable Dark Triad: Comparing Factor 2 Psychopathy, Vulnerable Narcissism, and Borderline Personality Disorder'. Journal of Personality. 78 (5): 1529–1564. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00660.x. PMID20663024.
^Lenzenweger, Mark F.; Clarkin, John F.; Caligor, Eve; Cain, Nicole M.; Kernberg, Otto F. (2018). 'Malignant Narcissism in Relation to Clinical Change in Borderline Personality Disorder: An Exploratory Study'. Psychopathology. 51 (5): 318–325. doi:10.1159/000492228. PMID30184541.
^Oakes, Kelly. 'The 'light triad' that can make you a good person'. BBC. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
^'Light Triad Scale'. Scott Barry Kaufman. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
^Tsukayama, Eli; Hyde, Elizabeth; Yaden, David Bryce; Kaufman, Scott Barry (2019). 'The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting Two Very Different Profiles of Human Nature'. Frontiers in Psychology. 10: 467. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467. ISSN1664-1078. PMC6423069. PMID30914993.
External links[edit]
Jonason, Peter K.; Webster, Gregory D. (June 2010). 'The dirty dozen: A concise measure of the dark triad'. Psychological Assessment. 22 (2): 420–432. doi:10.1037/a0019265. PMID20528068.
Jones, Daniel N.; Paulhus, Delroy L. (9 December 2013). 'Introducing the Short Dark Triad (SD3)'. Assessment. 21 (1): 28–41. doi:10.1177/1073191113514105. PMID24322012.
Mooney, Chris (February 14, 2014). 'Internet Trolls Really Are Horrible People: Narcissistic, Machiavellian, psychopathic, and sadistic'. Slate.
Machiavellianism- Psychology Today
Machiavellianism, Cognition, and EmotionPsych Central
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dark_triad&oldid=916083026'
The Dark Triad Dirty Dozen measures the dark triad personalities.
The Dark Triad Dirty Dozen (DTDD) is a brief 12-item personality inventory that simultaneously assesses the three socially maladaptive, dark triad traits: Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy.[1] It was developed by Jonason and Webster in 2010 based on already existing, longer measures of each dark triad trait.[1]
The DTDD was originally developed to identify the dark triad traits among subclinical adult population (i.e. high scores on the DTDD does not guarantee a clinical diagnosis).[2] It is not intended to diagnose personality disorders such as the Narcissistic personality disorder.
9Criticisms of the DTDD
Structure[edit]
The DTDD consists of 4 items per subscale (i.e. Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy).[1] Responses are rated on a 7-point Likert scale, wherein 1 implies a strong disagreement and the opposite for 7.[1] The Machiavellianism items assess characteristics such as manipulativeness, deceitfulness, and likelihood of employing flattery and exploitation for personal gain.[1] The narcissism items are concerned with whether the individual seeks admiration, attention, status, and favours from others.[1] The psychopathy items focus on features such as amorality, cynicism, callousness, and lack of remorse.[1]
Development[edit]
The DTDD was developed due to the absence of a single, concise test which measured the three dark triad traits simultaneously.[1] Prior to the development of the DTDD, researchers were required to use different personality tests for each of the dark triad traits.[1] This made scoring difficult for researchers, as it required standardisation of scores of each test for comparison.[1] Another issue with measuring all of dark triad traits by different tests was that it would involve too many items, making administration time-consuming and potentially fatiguing among test-takers, leading to less accurate responses.[1]
As such, Jonason and Webster sought to develop a short and easily administrable measure of the dark triad by adapting items from traditional, existing measures of each dark triad construct, namely the Mach IV for Machiavellianism, the Self-Report Psychopathy Scale-III (SRP-III) for psychopathy, and the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) for narcissism.[1] The researchers first identified 22 candidate items, and conducted a principal component analysis to identify items that would be included in the DTDD.[1] Four items that contributed to each of the dark triad trait the most were added in the DTDD.[1] Since Jonason and Webster identified a “problem” item that was contributing to lower internal consistency reliability, it was rephrased in the final version of the DTDD.[1]
Effects of Sex and Age[edit]
Given that personality tends to be unstable until adulthood, researchers have been reluctant to conduct self-report personality measures on younger people.[3] In line with this, most studies on the DTDD have been administering the questionnaire in university student or adult samples; however, a study has suggested that it is also applicable to use in high-school aged population as well.[3]
Consistent with studies investigating sex differences in scores of established measures of the dark triad traits, adult males tend to score higher on the DTDD than females, especially on the psychopathy subscale.[1] Similar pattern of sex differences in the DTDD scores have been found among adolescents, however it is not as robust as the adult samples.[3] Jones and Paulhus explain that this sex difference may emerge because males, more than females, tend to benefit more from using manipulative, exploitative strategies characteristic of the dark triad traits.[1] Females may not benefit as much from engaging in these socially manipulative tactics as they tend to be more embedded in social structures.[1]
Factor Structure[edit]
A diagram of the bi-factor model of the DTDD.
Theoretically, the three dark triad traits are treated as separate, but related constructs.[4] In parallel with the factor structure of the dark triad traits, traditional tests of these traits measure each trait independently (e.g. NPI, SRP-III, Mach IV). Due to the DTDD’s ability to measure all three constructs simultaneously, researchers have been inquiring whether the DTDD should be better conceptualised as a scale measuring a unitary factor, that is, a composite dark triad trait, or as a scale that measures three distinct but correlating factors.[1] It has been previously demonstrated that the three-factor model (i.e. a scale measuring Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy) was more appropriate match for the DTDD more than the single-factor model (i.e. a scale measuring a compound dark triad factor).[1] However further research on the DTDD’s factor structure displayed that a bi-factor model yielded the most appropriate match.[5][6] A bi-factor model combines the one-factor and three-factor models. In this model, both the general factor (i.e. composite dark triad factor) and the three factors of the DTDD subscales (i.e. Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy) account for the shared variance of the items.[6]
Reliability[edit]
In their first publication of DTDD, Jonason and Webster have reported overall good reliability of the personality scale:
The test-retest reliability of the DTDD was investigated on 60 psychology university students.[1] In this study, the participants completed the DTDD each week for 3 weeks. The average test-retest correlation was high: DTDD = .89, Machiavellianism = .86, psychopathy = .76, narcissism = .87.[1]
The item-level temporal reliability refers to whether responses of each item on the questionnaire retains stability across time. This was assessed on the same 60 psychology students over the course of 3 weeks.[1] The average item-level temporal reliability was high: M = .92, P = .84, N = .92.[1]
The DTDD is also found to have satisfactory internal consistency reliability: DTDD = .86, M = .79, P = .77, N = .84.[1] After revision of Item 6, a psychopathy-specific item, the internal consistency reliability of psychopathy subscale has improved from (on average) .60 to .77.[1]
Validity[edit]
Jonason and Webster conducted several validity tests of the DTDD as part of its development.[1] Although relevant outcomes have all shown statistical significance, the DTDD’s validity appears not as robust as its reliability.
Convergent validity (i.e. the extent to which two tests that measure the same construct are strongly related) was assessed by comparing the DTDD subscales (i.e. Machiavellianism, psychopathy, narcissism) with established measures of each subscales; Mach IV, SRP-III, and NPI respectively.[1] DTDD Machiavellianism was correlated with Mach IV at .34, DTDD psychopathy with SRP-III at .42 and DTDD Narcissism with NPI at .46.[1] However, the SRP-III correlated stronger with DTDD Machiavellianism at .44 than DTDD psychopathy, a subscale that SRP-III should have the largest theoretical overlap with.[1]
Concurrent validity (i.e. whether measures of constructs that should be theoretically related does show high correlation) with the relevant Big Five personality traits was assessed using the Ten-Item Personality Inventory (TIPI) and the Big Five Inventory.[1] As expected, the DTDD displayed negative but modest correlation with Agreeableness and Conscientiousness.[1]
Through comparison with an aggression scale, the DTDD showed some evidence of concurrent validity, as there were medium positive correlations with physical aggression, verbal aggression, hostility and anger.[1] Subscales that were more theoretically associated with aggression (i.e. DTDD Machiavellianism and DTDD psychopathy) displayed stronger correlations with measures of aggression.[1]
The DTDD showed positive association (.31) with the Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (a personality test measuring individuals’ attitudes towards participating in casual sexual relationships), again, contributing to its concurrent validity.[1]
Jonason and McCain investigated the concurrent validity of the DTDD in relation to the HEXACO model of personality.[7] In line with established measures of the dark triad traits, all the DTDD subscales showed strong negative association with the Honesty/Humility factor (ranging from -.52 to -.38) and significant but weaker negative correlation with Agreeableness (ranging from -.29 to -.21).[7]
Other researchers have also conducted validity tests. Below are the examples of the findings:
In a study investigating the DTDD’s criterion validity on 200 undergraduate students, it was found that DTDD was significantly predictive of socially maladaptive outcome variables concerning sex (e.g. opting for short-term sexual relationships and likelihood of engaging in sexual harassment), money (e.g. conspicuous consumption and tendency to make unethical decisions for monetary gains) and power (e.g. one's perceived importance of power).[8] However, DTDD was not as predictive of these outcomes as the Honesty-Humility trait of the HEXACO model of personality.
The convergent validity specifically of the DTDD psychopathy subscale was assessed in a study with other established self-report psychopathy tests on 789 undergraduates and 75 male prisoners.[9] DTDD psychopathy showed significant correlations with prominent measures of psychopathy including the Psychopathic Personality Inventory-Revised (.38), SRP-III (.46) and Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy scale (.48). However, this study reported less promising criterion validity of the DTDD, as results indicate that the standard psychopathy scales predicted externalising behaviours (including substance use, antisocial behaviour, domestic violence, and gambling) better than the DTDD psychopathy subscale.[9]
Adaptations[edit]
The DTDD has been translated and adapted for other cultures and languages, including French-Canadian, Japanese, Polish, Portuguese, Serbian, Spanish, Swedish, and Turkish versions.[10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17]
Alternatives to the DTDD[edit]
Other researchers saw the 12-item DTDD too brief in covering all relevant content involved in each of the dark triad traits.[18] As an alternative brief measure, Jones and Paulhus have developed the 27-item Short Dark Triad (SD3) in 2014, consisting of 9 items for each of Machiavellianism, psychopathy and narcissism subscale.[18] As opposed to the DTDD in which items were derived from existing dark triad measures, in the SD3, items were developed through considering theoretically relevant facets of the three traits.[18]
Criticisms of the DTDD[edit]
Comparison with the SD3[edit]
Researchers have questioned DTDD’s validity, especially in comparison to the SD3. It has been found that the convergent validity of the SD3 is superior to the DTDD in relation to existing measures of dark triad subscales in multiple studies.[18][19] Researchers report that the SD3 performs better than the DTDD in terms of incremental validity (i.e the extent of a new instrument to predict additional information that was not previously predicted by other instruments).[19] Moreover, when content validity (i.e. whether a test captures the essential elements of a construct) of the two inventories was compared, the SD3 out-performed the DTDD.[18][19] Researchers suggest that the DTDD’s poorer performance on these validity outcomes may be due its sheer brevity and the large content overlap between the items, which grants the scale good internal consistency at the expense of sufficient coverage of theoretically significant content.[18][19]
General critiques[edit]
The DTDD has also been criticised for its low discriminating power specifically for its narcissism subscale.[20] An item response theory analysis has revealed that the DTDD narcissism items were the easiest to respond to compared to DTDD items for Machiavellianism and psychopathy.[20] This implies that the DTDD narcissism subscale does not sufficiently discriminate between those with “normal” range of narcissism (which may result from having self confidence or high self-esteem) and those with “abnormal” levels of the trait.[20]
Other researchers have criticised about the sparse coverage of important psychopathy facets in the DTDD psychopathy subscale.[9] Specifically, the DTDD does not account for disinhibition (i.e. impulsivity), which may explain why it has weaker correlations with relevant Big Five personality traits such as Agreeableness and Conscientiousness compared to established measures of psychopathy.[9] They recommend that the DTDD should be used as an adjunct measure of psychopathy.[9]
The DTDD’s psychopathy and Machiavellianism subscales have been questioned whether they are adequately distinct from each other, given that they are conceptualised similarly in the questionnaire.[21] A study demonstrated that the demarcation between the two subscales are blurred, as the DTDD Machiavellianism shows stronger correlation with a traditional measure of psychopathy rather than of Machiavellianism.[21] This study concludes that at least among university student aged men, the DTDD is better understood as a measure of two factors; narcissism and “Machiavellianism-psychopathy”, where Machiavellianism is conceptualised as the less severe form of psychopathy.[21]
References[edit]
^ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiJonason, Peter K.; Webster, Gregory D. (2010). 'The dirty dozen: A concise measure of the dark triad'. Psychological Assessment. 22 (2): 420–432. doi:10.1037/a0019265. ISSN1939-134X.
^Webster, Gregory D.; Jonason, Peter K. (2013). 'Putting the 'IRT' in 'Dirty': Item response theory analyses of the Dark Triad Dirty Dozen—An efficient measure of narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism'. Personality and Individual Differences. 54 (2): 302–306. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.08.027. ISSN0191-8869.
^ abcKlimstra, Theo A.; Sijtsema, Jelle J.; Henrichs, Jens; Cima, Maaike (2014). 'The Dark Triad of personality in adolescence: Psychometric properties of a concise measure and associations with adolescent adjustment from a multi-informant perspective'. Journal of Research in Personality. 53: 84–92. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2014.09.001. ISSN0092-6566.
^Paulhus, Delroy L; Williams, Kevin M (2002). 'The Dark Triad of personality: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy'. Journal of Research in Personality. 36 (6): 556–563. doi:10.1016/s0092-6566(02)00505-6. ISSN0092-6566.
^Jonason, Peter K. University of Western Sydney Kaufman, Scott B. Webster, Gregory D. Geher, Glenn (2013). What lies beneath the Dark Triad Dirty Dozen : varied relations with the Big Five. U.S.A., Individual Differences Research Group. OCLC859108874.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ abJonason, Peter K.; Luévano, Victor X. (2013). 'Walking the thin line between efficiency and accuracy: Validity and structural properties of the Dirty Dozen'. Personality and Individual Differences. 55 (1): 76–81. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.02.010. ISSN0191-8869.
^ abJonason, Peter K.; McCain, Jessica (2012). 'Using the HEXACO model to test the validity of the Dirty Dozen measure of the Dark Triad'. Personality and Individual Differences. 53 (7): 935–938. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.07.010. ISSN0191-8869.
^Lee, Kibeom; Ashton, Michael C.; Wiltshire, Jocelyn; Bourdage, Joshua S.; Visser, Beth A.; Gallucci, Alissa (2013). 'Sex, Power, and Money: Prediction from the Dark Triad and Honesty–Humility'. European Journal of Personality. 27 (2): 169–184. doi:10.1002/per.1860. ISSN1099-0984.
^ abcdeMiller, Joshua D.; Few, Lauren R.; Seibert, L. Alana; Watts, Ashley; Zeichner, Amos; Lynam, Donald R. (2012). 'An examination of the Dirty Dozen measure of psychopathy: A cautionary tale about the costs of brief measures'. Psychological Assessment. 24 (4): 1048–1053. doi:10.1037/a0028583. ISSN1939-134X.
^Savard, Claudia; Simard, Caroline; Jonason, Peter K. (2017). 'Dark Triad Dirty Dozen--French-Canadian Version'. PsycTESTS Dataset. Retrieved 2019-05-13.
^Shimotsukasa, T.; Oshio, A. (2016). 'Development and validation of the Japanese version of the Short Dark Triad (SD3-J): Comparing with the Japanese version of the Dark Triad Dirty Dozen'. Personality and Individual Differences. 101: 514. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.05.295. ISSN0191-8869.
^Czarna, A.Z.; Jonason, P.K. (2014). 'Parszywa Dwunastka: Developing a Polish version of the Dark Triad Dirty Dozen'. Personality and Individual Differences. 60: S62. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.07.270. ISSN0191-8869.
^Macedo, A.; Araújo, A.I.; Cabaços, C.; Brito, M.J.; Mendonça, L.; Pereira, A.T. (2017). 'Personality dark triad: Portuguese validation of the dirty dozen'. European Psychiatry. 41: S711. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2017.01.1268. ISSN0924-9338.
^Dinić, Bojana M.; Petrović, Boban; Jonason, Peter K. (2018). 'Serbian adaptations of the Dark Triad Dirty Dozen (DTDD) and Short Dark Triad (SD3)'. Personality and Individual Differences. 134: 321–328. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.06.018. ISSN0191-8869.
^Pineda, David; Sandín, Bonifacio; Muris, Peter (2018-06-08). 'Psychometrics properties of the Spanish version of two Dark Triad scales: The Dirty Dozen and the Short Dark Triad'. Current Psychology. doi:10.1007/s12144-018-9888-5. ISSN1046-1310.
^Garcia, Danilo; MacDonald, Shane; Rapp-Ricciardi, Max (2017-05-22). 'Factor analysis of the Swedish version of the Dark Triad Dirty Dozen'. PsyCh Journal. 6 (2): 166–167. doi:10.1002/pchj.168. ISSN2046-0252.
^Özsoy, Emrah; Rauthmann, John F.; Jonason, Peter K.; Ardıç, Kadir (2017). 'Reliability and validity of the Turkish versions of Dark Triad Dirty Dozen (DTDD-T), Short Dark Triad (SD3-T), and Single Item Narcissism Scale (SINS-T)'. Personality and Individual Differences. 117: 11–14. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.05.019. ISSN0191-8869.
^ abcdefJones, Daniel N.; Paulhus, Delroy L. (2013-12-09). 'Introducing the Short Dark Triad (SD3)'. Assessment. 21 (1): 28–41. doi:10.1177/1073191113514105. ISSN1073-1911.
^ abcdMaples, Jessica L.; Lamkin, Joanna; Miller, Joshua D. (2014). 'A test of two brief measures of the dark triad: The dirty dozen and short dark triad'. Psychological Assessment. 26 (1): 326–331. doi:10.1037/a0035084. ISSN1939-134X.
^ abc'Peer Review #1 of 'The (mis)measurement of the Dark Triad Dirty Dozen: exploitation at the core of the scale (v0.1)''. 2016-03-01. doi:10.7287/peerj.1748v0.1/reviews/1.Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ abcCarter, Gregory Louis; Campbell, Anne C.; Muncer, Steven; Carter, Katherine A. (2015). 'A Mokken analysis of the Dark Triad 'Dirty Dozen': Sex and age differences in scale structures, and issues with individual items'. Personality and Individual Differences. 83: 185–191. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.04.012. ISSN0191-8869.
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